This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (March 2011)

Tug of war is an easily organized, impromptu game that requires little equipment.

The Card Players, a 1895 painting by Paul Cézanne depicting a game of cards.

A game is structured playing, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes used as an educational tool. Games are distinct from work, which is usually carried out for remuneration, and from art, which is more often an expression of aesthetic or ideological elements. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are also considered to be work (such as professional players of spectator sports/games) or art (such as jigsaw puzzles or games involving an artistic layout such as Mahjong, solitaire, or some video games).

Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, and interaction. Games generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, simulational, or psychological role.

Attested as early as 2600 BC,^[1][2] games are a universal part of human experience and present in all cultures. The Royal Game of Ur, Senet, and Mancala are some of the oldest known games.^[3]

Definitions[link]

Look up game in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Ludwig Wittgenstein[link]

Ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations,^[4] Wittgenstein demonstrated that the elements of games, such as play, rules, and competition, all fail to adequately define what games are. Wittgenstein concluded that people apply the term game to a range of disparate human activities that bear to one another only what one might call family resemblances.

Roger Caillois[link]

French sociologist Roger Caillois, in his book Les jeux et les hommes (Games and Men),^[5] defined a game as an activity that must have the following characteristics:

• fun: the activity is chosen for its light-hearted character
• separate: it is circumscribed in time and place
• uncertain: the outcome of the activity is unforeseeable
• non-productive: participation does not accomplish anything useful
• governed by rules: the activity has rules that are different from everyday life
• fictitious: it is accompanied by the awareness of a different reality

Chris Crawford[link]

Computer game designer Chris Crawford attempted to define the term game^[6] using a series of dichotomies:

1. Creative expression is art if made for its own beauty, and entertainment if made for money.
2. A piece of entertainment is a plaything if it is interactive. Movies and books are cited as examples of non-interactive entertainment.
3. If no goals are associated with a plaything, it is a toy. (Crawford notes that by his definition, (a) a toy can become a game element if the player makes up rules, and (b) The Sims and SimCity are toys, not games.) If it has goals, a plaything is a challenge.
4. If a challenge has no "active agent against whom you compete," it is a puzzle; if there is one, it is a conflict. (Crawford admits that this is a subjective test. Video games with noticeably algorithmic artificial intelligence can be played as puzzles; these include the patterns used to evade ghosts in Pac-Man.)
5. Finally, if the player can only outperform the opponent, but not attack them to interfere with their performance, the conflict is a competition. (Competitions include racing and figure skating.) However, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game.

Crawford's definition may thus be rendered as: an interactive, goal-oriented activity, with active agents to play against, in which players (including active agents) can interfere with each other.

Other definitions[link]

• "A game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome." (Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman)^[7]
• "A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, make decisions in order to manage resources through game tokens in the pursuit of a goal." (Greg Costikyan)^[8] According to this definitions, some "games" that do not involve choices, such as Chutes and Ladders, Candy Land, and War are not technically games any more than a slot machine is.
• "A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context." (Clark C. Abt)^[9]
• "At its most elementary level then we can define game as an exercise of voluntary control systems in which there is an opposition between forces, confined by a procedure and rules in order to produce a disequilibrial outcome." (Elliot Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith)^[10]
• "A game is a form of play with goals and structure." (Kevin J. Maroney)^[11]

Gameplay elements and classification[link]

Games can be characterized by "what the player does."^[6] This is often referred to as gameplay. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the overall context of game and that in turn produce skill, strategy, and chance.^{[clarification needed]}

Tools[link]

Games are often classified by the components required to play them (e.g. miniatures, a ball, cards, a board and pieces, or a computer). In places where the use of leather is well established, the ball has been a popular game piece throughout recorded history, resulting in a worldwide popularity of ball games such as rugby, basketball, football, cricket, tennis, and volleyball. Other tools are more idiosyncratic to a certain region. Many countries in Europe, for instance, have unique standard decks of playing cards. Other games such as chess may be traced primarily through the development and evolution of its game pieces.

Many game tools are tokens, meant to represent other things. A token may be a pawn on a board, play money, or an intangible item such as a point scored.

Games such as hide-and-seek or tag do not utilise any obvious tool; rather, their interactivity is defined by the environment. Games with the same or similar rules may have different gameplay if the environment is altered. For example, hide-and-seek in a school building differs from the same game in a park; an auto race can be radically different depending on the track or street course, even with the same cars.

Rules[link]

Whereas games are often characterized by their tools, they are often defined by their rules. While rules are subject to variations and changes, enough change in the rules usually results in a "new" game. For instance, baseball can be played with "real" baseballs or with wiffleballs. However, if the players decide to play with only three bases, they are arguably playing a different game. There are exceptions to this in that some games deliberately involve the changing of their own rules, but even then there are often immutable meta-rules.

Rules generally determine turn order, the rights and responsibilities of the players, and each player’s goals. Player rights may include when they may spend resources or move tokens. Common win conditions are being first to amass a certain quota of points or tokens (as in Settlers of Catan), having the greatest number of tokens at the end of the game (as in Monopoly), or some relationship of one’s game tokens to those of one’s opponent (as in chess's checkmate).

Skill, strategy, and chance[link]

A game’s tools and rules will result in its requiring skill, strategy, luck, or a combination thereof, and are classified accordingly.

Games of skill include games of physical skill, such as wrestling, tug of war, hopscotch, target shooting, and stake, and games of mental skill such as checkers and chess. Games of strategy include checkers, chess, go, arimaa, and tic-tac-toe, and often require special equipment to play them. Games of chance include gambling games (blackjack, mah-jongg, roulette, etc.), as well as snakes and ladders and rock, paper, scissors; most require equipment such as cards or dice. However, most games contain two or all three of these elements. For example, American football and baseball involve both physical skill and strategy while tiddlywinks, poker, and Monopoly combine strategy and chance. Many card and board games combine all three; most trick-taking games involve mental skill, strategy, and an element of chance, as do many strategic board games such as Risk, Settlers of Catan, and Carcassonne.

Single-player games[link]

Most games require multiple players. However, single-player games are unique in respect to the type of challenges a player faces. Unlike a game with multiple players competing with or against each other to reach the game's goal, a one-player game is a battle solely against an element of the environment (an artificial opponent), against one's own skills, against time, or against chance. Playing with a yo-yo or playing tennis against a wall is not generally recognized as playing a game due to the lack of any formidable opposition.

It is not valid to describe a computer game as single-player where the computer provides opposition. If the computer is merely record-keeping, then the game may be validly single-player.

Many games described as "single-player" may be termed actually puzzles or recreations.

Types[link]

Games can take a variety of forms, from competitive sports to board games and video games.

Sports[link]

Association football is a popular sport worldwide.

Many sports require special equipment and dedicated playing fields, leading to the involvement of a community much larger than the group of players. A city or town may set aside such resources for the organization of sports leagues.

Popular sports may have spectators who are entertained just by watching games. A community will often align itself with a local sports team that supposedly represents it (even if the team or most of its players only recently moved in); they often align themselves against their opponents or have traditional rivalries. The concept of fandom began with sports fans.

Stanley Fish cited^{[citation needed]} the balls and strikes of baseball as a clear example of social construction, the operation of rules on the game's tools. While the strike zone target is governed by the rules of the game, it epitomizes the category of things that exist only because people have agreed to treat them as real. No pitch is a ball or a strike until it has been labeled as such by an appropriate authority, the plate umpire, whose judgment on this matter cannot be challenged within the current game.

Certain competitive sports, such as racing and gymnastics, are not games by definitions such as Crawford's (see above) – despite the inclusion of many in the Olympic Games – because competitors do not interact with their opponents; they simply challenge each other in indirect ways.

Lawn games[link]

Lawn games are outdoor games that can be played on a lawn; an area of mowed grass (or alternately, on graded soil) generally smaller than a "field" or pitch. Variations of many games that are traditionally played on a pitch are marketed as "lawn games" for home use in a front or back yard. Common lawn games include horseshoes, sholf, croquet, bocce, lawn bowls, and stake.

Tabletop games[link]

A tabletop game generally refers to any game where the elements of play are confined to a small area and that require little physical exertion, usually simply placing, picking up and moving game pieces. Most of these games are, thus, played at a table around which the players are seated and on which the game's elements are located. A variety of major game types generally fall under the heading of tabletop games. It is worth noting that many games falling into this category, particularly party games, are more free-form in their play and can involve physical activity such as mime, however the basic premise is still that the game does not require a large area in which to play it, large amounts of strength or stamina, or specialized equipment other than what comes in the box (games sometimes require additional materials like pencil and paper that are easy to procure).

Dexterity and coordination games[link]

This class of games includes any game in which the skill element involved relates to manual dexterity or hand-eye coordination, but excludes the class of video games (see below). Games such as jacks, paper football, and Jenga require only very portable or improvised equipment and can be played on any flat level surface, while other examples, such as pinball, billiards, air hockey, foosball, and table hockey require specialized tables or other self-contained modules on which the game is played. The advent of home video game systems largely replaced some of these, such as table hockey, however air hockey, billiards, pinball and foosball remain popular fixtures in private and public game rooms. These games and others, as they require reflexes and coordination, are generally performed more poorly by intoxicated persons but are unlikely to result in injury because of this; as such the games are popular as drinking games. In addition, dedicated drinking games such as quarters also involve physical coordination and are popular for similar reasons.

Board games[link]

Parcheesi is an American adaptation of a board game originating in India.

Board games use as a central tool a board on which the players' status, resources, and progress are tracked using physical tokens. Many also involve dice and/or cards. Most games that simulate war are board games (though a large number of video games have been created to simulate strategic combat; see "Video Games" below), and the board may be a map on which the players' tokens move. Virtually all board games involve "turn-based" play; one player contemplates and then makes a move, then the next player does the same, and a player can only act on their turn. This is opposed to "real-time" play as is found in some card games, most sports and most video games.

Some games, such as chess and Go, are entirely deterministic, relying only on the strategy element for their interest. Such games are usually described as having "perfect information"; the only unknown is the exact thought processes of one's opponent, not the outcome of any unknown event inherent in the game (such as a card draw or die roll). Children's games, on the other hand, tend to be very luck-based, with games such as Candy Land and Chutes and Ladders having virtually no decisions to be made. By some definitions, such as that by (Greg Costikyan), they are not games since there are no decisions to make to effect the outcome.^[12] Many other games involving a high degree of luck do not allow direct attacks between opponents; the random event simply determines a gain or loss in the standing of the current player within the game, which is independent of any other player; the "game" then is actually a "race" by definitions such as Crawford's.

Most other board games combine strategy and luck factors; the game of backgammon requires players to decide the best strategic move based on the roll of two dice. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on the questions a person gets. German-style board games are notable for often having rather less of a luck factor than many board games.

Board game groups include race games, roll-and-move games, abstract strategy games, word games, and wargames, as well as the trivia and German-style board games mentioned above. Some board games fall into multiple groups and even incorporate elements of other genres: Cranium is one popular example, where players must succeed in each of four main skills: artistry, live performance, trivia, and language skill.

Card games[link]

Card games use a deck of cards as their central tool. These cards may be a standard Anglo-American (52-card) deck of playing cards (such as for bridge, poker, Rummy, etc.), a regional deck using 32, 36 or 40 cards and different suit signs (such as for the popular German game skat), a tarot deck of 78 cards (used in Europe to play a variety of trick-taking games collectively known as Tarot, Tarock, and/or Tarocchi games), or a deck specific to the individual game (such as Set or 1000 Blank White Cards). Uno and Rook are examples of games that were originally played with a standard deck and have since been commercialized with customized decks. Some collectible card games such as Magic: The Gathering are played with a small selection of cards that have been collected or purchased individually from large available sets.

Some board games include a deck of cards as a gameplay element, normally for randomization and/or to keep track of game progress. Conversely, some card games such as Cribbage use a board with movers, normally to keep score. The differentiation between the two genres in such cases depends on which element of the game is foremost in its play; a board game using cards for random actions can usually use some other method of randomization, while Cribbage can just as easily be scored on paper. These elements as used are simply the traditional and easiest methods to achieve their purpose.

Dice games[link]

Dice games use a number of dice as their central element. Board games often use dice for a randomization element, and thus each roll of the dice has a profound impact on the outcome of the game, however dice games are differentiated in that the dice do not determine the success or failure of some other element of the game; they instead are the central indicator of the person's standing in the game. Popular dice games include Yahtzee, Farkle, Bunco, Liar's dice/Perudo, and Poker dice. As dice are, by their very nature, designed to produce apparently random numbers, these games usually involve a high degree of luck, which can be directed to some extent by the player through more strategic elements of play and through tenets of probability theory. Such games are thus popular as gambling games; the game of Craps is perhaps the most famous example, though Liar's dice and Poker dice were originally conceived of as gambling games.

Domino and tile games[link]

Domino games are similar in many respects to card games, but the generic device is instead a set of tiles called dominoes, which traditionally each have two ends, each with a given number of dots, or "pips", and each combination of two possible end values as it appears on a tile is unique in the set. The games played with dominoes largely center around playing a domino from the player's "hand" onto the matching end of another domino, and the overall object could be to always be able to make a play, to make all open endpoints sum to a given number or multiple, or simply to play all dominoes from one's hand onto the board. Sets vary in the number of possible dots on one end, and thus of the number of combinations and pieces; the most common set historically is double-six, though in more recent times "extended" sets such as double-nine have been introduced to increase the number of dominoes available, which allows larger hands and more players in a game. Muggins, Mexican Train, and Chicken Foot are very popular domino games. Texas 42 is a domino game more similar in its play to a "trick-taking" card game.

Variations of traditional dominoes abound: Triominoes are similar in theory but are triangular and thus have three values per tile. Similarly, a game known as Quad-Ominos uses four-sided tiles.

Some other games use tiles in place of cards; Rummikub is a variant of the Rummy card game family that uses tiles numbered in ascending rank among four colors, very similar in makeup to a 2-deck "pack" of Anglo-American playing cards. Mah-Jongg is another game very similar to Rummy that uses a set of tiles with card-like values and art.

Lastly, some games use graphical tiles to form a board layout, on which other elements of the game are played. Settlers of Catan and Carcassonne are examples. In each, the "board" is made up of a series of tiles; in Settlers of Catan the starting layout is random but static, while in Carcassonne the game is played by "building" the board tile-by-tile. Hive, an abstract strategy game using tiles as moving pieces, has mechanical and strategic elements similar to chess, although it has no board; the pieces themselves both form the layout and can move within it.

Pencil and paper games[link]

Pencil and paper games require little or no specialized equipment other than writing materials, though some such games have been commercialized as board games (Scrabble, for instance, is based on the idea of a crossword puzzle, and tic-tac-toe sets with a boxed grid and pieces are available commercially). These games vary widely, from games centering on a design being drawn such as Pictionary and "connect-the-dots" games like sprouts, to letter and word games such as Boggle and Scattergories, to solitaire and logic puzzle games such as Sudoku and crossword puzzles.

Guessing games[link]

A guessing game has as its core a piece of information that one player knows, and the object is to coerce others into guessing that piece of information without actually divulging it in text or spoken word. Charades is probably the most well-known game of this type, and has spawned numerous commercial variants that involve differing rules on the type of communication to be given, such as Catch Phrase, Taboo, Pictionary, and similar. The genre also includes many game shows such as Win, Lose or Draw, Password and $25,000 Pyramid.

Video games[link]

Video games are computer- or microprocessor-controlled games. Computers can create virtual spaces for a wide variety of game types. Some video games simulate conventional game objects like cards or dice, while others can simulate environs either grounded in reality or fantastical in design, each with its own set of rules or goals.

A computer or video game uses one or more input devices, typically a button/joystick combination (on arcade games); a keyboard, mouse and/or trackball (computer games); or a controller or a motion sensitive tool. (console games). More esoteric devices such as paddle controllers have also been used for input. In computer games, the evolution of user interfaces from simple keyboard to mouse, joystick or joypad has profoundly changed the nature of game development.^{[citation needed]}

There are many genres of video game; the first commercial video game, Pong, was a simple simulation of table tennis. As processing power increased, new genres such as adventure and action games were developed that involved a player guiding a character from a third person perspective through a series of obstacles. This "real-time" element cannot be easily reproduced by a board game, which is generally limited to "turn-based" strategy; this advantage allows video games to simulate situations such as combat more realistically. Additionally, the playing of a video game does not require the same physical skill, strength and/or danger as a real-world representation of the game, and can provide either very realistic, exaggerated or impossible physics, allowing for elements of a fantastical nature, games involving physical violence, or simulations of sports. Lastly, a computer can, with varying degrees of success, simulate one or more human opponents in traditional table games such as chess, leading to simulations of such games that can be played by a single player.

In more open-ended computer simulations, also known as sandbox-style games, the game provides a virtual environment in which the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of this universe. Sometimes, there is a lack of goals or opposition, which has stirred some debate on whether these should be considered "games" or "toys". (Crawford specifically mentions Will Wright's SimCity as an example of a toy.)^[6]

Online games[link]

From the very earliest days of networked and time-shared computers, online games have been part of the culture. Early commercial systems such as Plato were at least as widely famous for their games as for their strictly educational value. In 1958, Tennis for Two dominated Visitor's Day and drew attention to the oscilloscope at the Brookhaven National Laboratory; during the 1980s, Xerox PARC was known mainly for Maze War, which was offered as a hands-on demo to visitors.

Modern online games are played using an Internet connection; some have dedicated client programs, while others require only a web browser. Some simpler browser games appeal to demographic groups (notably women and the middle-aged) that otherwise play very few video games.^{[citation needed]}

Media audiences' characteristic has been changing in consequence of the social changes and development. They are becoming active and interact more than ever before. The players of the game in this phenomenon are just like the social formation in society. They are both self-regulating, creating their own social norms and subject to regulation and constraint through the code of the game and sometimes through the policing of the game by those who run it. The values that are policed vary from game to game. Many of the values encoded into game cultures reflect offline cultural values, but games also offer a chance to emphasise alternative or subjugated values in the name of fantasy and play. The players of the game at the new century are now apparently expressing their profound self through the game. When they can play with their anonymous status, they are found to be more confident to express and to step out from the position they have never been out from. It offers new experiences and pleasures based in the interactive and immersible possibilities of computer technologies.^{[citation needed]}

Role-playing games[link]

Role-playing games, often abbreviated as RPGs, are a type of game in which the participants (usually) assume the roles of characters acting in a fictional setting. The original role playing games—or at least those explicitly marketed as such—are played with a handful of participants, usually face-to-face, and keep track of the developing fiction with pen and paper. Together, the players may collaborate on a story involving those characters; create, develop, and "explore" the setting; or vicariously experience an adventure outside the bounds of everyday life. Pen-and-paper role-playing games include, for example, Dungeons & Dragons and GURPS.

The term role-playing game has also been appropriated by the video game industry to describe a genre of video games. These may be single-player games where one player experiences a programmed environment and story, or they may allow players to interact through the internet. The experience is usually quite different from traditional role-playing games. Single-player games include Final Fantasy, Fable, The Elder Scrolls, and Mass Effect. Online multi-player games, often referred to as Massively Multiplayer Online role playing games, or MMORPGs, include RuneScape, EverQuest 2, Guild Wars, MapleStory, Anarchy Online, and Dofus. As of 2009^[update], the most successful MMORPG has been World of Warcraft, which controls the vast majority of the market.^[13]

Business games[link]

Business games can take a variety of forms, from interactive board games to interactive games involving different props (balls, ropes, hoops, etc.) and different kinds of activities. The purpose of these games is to link to some aspect of organizational performance and to generate discussions about business improvement. Many business games focus on organizational behaviors. Some of these are computer simulations while others are simple designs for play and debriefing. Team building is a common focus of such activities.

Simulation[link]

The term "game" can include simulation^[14][15] or re-enactment of various activities or use in "real life" for various purposes: e.g., training, analysis, prediction. Well-known examples are war games and roleplaying. The root of this meaning may originate in the human prehistory of games deduced by anthropology from observing primitive cultures, in which children's games mimic the activities of adults to a significant degree: hunting, warring, nursing, etc. These kinds of games are preserved in modern times.^{[original research?]}

See also[link]

Sports and games portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Game

• Game classification
• Game club
• Game theory
• Gamer
• Girls' games and toys
• History of games
• Lawn game
• List of games
• Ludibrium
• Ludology

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Avedon, Elliot; Sutton-Smith, Brian, The Study of Games. (Philadelphia: Wiley, 1971), reprinted Krieger, 1979. ISBN 0-89874-045-2

Nintendo Co., Ltd.

Nintendo's logo, which dates back to the 1980s. The current color was adopted in 2006; the previous red version is still used on some properties, mostly in Japan.[1]
Type	Kabushiki gaisha
Traded as	TYO: 7974 Osaka SE: 7974 OTC Pink: NTDOY FWB: NTO
Industry	Consumer electronics Video games
Founded	September 23, 1889[2]
Headquarters	Kyoto, Japan[3]
Area served	Worldwide
Key people	Satoru Iwata (President) Tatsumi Kimishima (Chairman)
Products	Game Boy line, Color TV Game, NES, SNES, Virtual Boy, Nintendo 64, Nintendo GameCube, Gameboy Advance, Nintendo DS, Wii, Nintendo 3DS, and various video games
Revenue	¥1 trillion (2011)[4]
Operating income	¥171 billion (2011)[4]
Net income	¥77.6 billion (2011)[4]
Total assets	¥1.6 trillion (2011)[4]
Total equity	¥1.2 trillion (2011)[4]
Employees	4,712 (2011)[5]
Website	www.nintendo.co.jp

Nintendo Co., Ltd. (任天堂株式会社, Nintendō Kabushiki gaisha^?) is a Japanese multinational consumer electronics company located in Kyoto, Japan. Founded on September 23, 1889^[2] by Fusajiro Yamauchi, it produced handmade hanafuda cards.^[6] By 1963, the company had tried several small niche businesses, such as a cab company and a love hotel.^[7]

Nintendo developed into a video game company, becoming the most influential in the industry^{[citation needed]}, and Japan's third most valuable listed company, with a market value of over US$ 85 billion.^[8] Nintendo of America is also the majority owner of the Seattle Mariners Major League Baseball team.^[9]

The name Nintendo can be roughly translated from Japanese to English as "leave luck to heaven".^[10] As of October 18, 2010, Nintendo has sold over 565 million hardware units and 3.4 billion software units.^[11]

History[link]

Former headquarters plate, from when Nintendo was solely a playing card company

As a card company (1889–1956)[link]

Nintendo was founded as a card company in late 1889, originally named Nintendo Koppai. Based in Kyoto, Japan, the business produced and marketed a playing card game called Hanafuda. The handmade cards soon became popular, and Yamauchi hired assistants to mass produce cards to satisfy demand. Nintendo continues to manufacture playing cards in Japan^[12] and organizes its own contract bridge tournament called the "Nintendo Cup".^[13]

New ventures (1956–1974)[link]

In 1956, Hiroshi Yamauchi (grandson of Fusajiro Yamauchi) visited the U.S. to talk with the United States Playing Card Company, the dominant playing card manufacturer there. He found that the world's biggest company in his business was only using a small office. This was a turning point when Yamauchi realized the limitations of the playing card business. He then gained access to Disney's characters and put them on the playing cards to drive sales.

The Nintendo Love Tester

In 1963, Yamauchi renamed Nintendo Playing Card Co. Ltd. to Nintendo Co., Ltd.^[14] The company then began to experiment in other areas of business using newly injected capital. During this period of time between 1963 and 1968, Nintendo set up a taxi company, a love hotel chain, a TV network, a food company (selling instant rice, similar to instant noodles) and several other things. All of these ventures eventually failed, and after the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, playing card sales dropped, and Nintendo's stock price plummeted to ¥60.

In 1966, Nintendo moved into the Japanese toy industry with the Ultra Hand, an extendable arm developed by its maintenance engineer Gunpei Yokoi in his free time. Yokoi was moved from maintenance to the new "Nintendo Games" department as a product developer. Nintendo continued to produce popular toys, including the Ultra Machine, Love Tester and the Kousenjuu series of light gun games. Despite some successful products, Nintendo struggled to meet the fast development and manufacturing turnaround required in the toy market, and fell behind the well-established companies such as Bandai and Tomy.

In 1973, its focus shifted to family entertainment venues with the Laser Clay Shooting System, using the same light gun technology used in Nintendo's Kousenjuu series of toys, and set up in abandoned bowling alleys. Following some success, Nintendo developed several more light gun machines (such as the light gun shooter game Wild Gunman) for the emerging arcade scene. While the Laser Clay Shooting System ranges had to be shut down following excessive costs, Nintendo had found a new market.

Electronic era (since 1974)[link]

Nintendo's first venture into the video-gaming industry was securing rights to distribute the Magnavox Odyssey video game console in Japan in 1974. Nintendo began to produce its own hardware in 1977, with the Color TV Game home video game consoles. Four versions of these consoles were produced, each including variations of a single game (for example, Color TV Game 6 featured six versions of Light Tennis).

A student product developer named Shigeru Miyamoto was hired by Nintendo at this time.^[15] He worked for Yokoi, and one of his first tasks was to design the casing for several of the Color TV Game consoles. Miyamoto went on to create, direct and produce some of Nintendo's most famous video games and become one of the most recognizable figures in the video game industry.^[15]

In 1975, Nintendo moved into the video arcade game industry with EVR Race, designed by their first game designer, Genyo Takeda,^[16] and several more titles followed. Nintendo had some small success with this venture, but the release of Donkey Kong in 1981, designed by Miyamoto, changed Nintendo's fortunes dramatically. The success of the game and many licensing opportunities (such as ports on the Atari 2600, Intellivision and ColecoVision) gave Nintendo a huge boost in profit.

In 1980, Nintendo launched Game & Watch—a handheld video game series developed by Yokoi where each game was played on a separate device—to worldwide success. In 1983, Nintendo launched the Family Computer (commonly shortened "Famicom"), known outside Japan as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), home video game console in Japan, alongside ports of its most popular arcade titles. In 1985, the NES launched in North America, and was accompanied by Super Mario Bros., one of the best-selling video games of all time.^[17]

After the success of the Game & Watch, Yokoi developed the Game Boy handheld game console in 1989. The Game Boy, the best-selling handheld of all time, remained dominant for more than a decade. Incremental updates in the Game Boy Pocket and Game Boy Color over the next decade did little to change the original formula.

The Nintendo Entertainment System was superseded by the Super Famicom, known outside Japan as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). This was Nintendo's console of the 16-bit 4th generation, following the Famicom of the 8-bit 3rd generation, whose main rival was the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis. A console war between Sega and Nintendo ensued.^[18] Although relatively late to market, the SNES considerably outsold the Mega Drive/Genesis.^[19]

Aiming to produce an affordable virtual reality console, Gunpei Yokoi designed the Virtual Boy, a table-mounted semi-portable console featuring stereoscopic graphics. Users view games through a binocular eyepiece and control games using a gamepad. Critics were generally disappointed with the quality of the games and graphics, and complained of gameplay-induced headaches.^[20] The system sold poorly and was quietly discontinued.^[21] Amid the system's failure, Yokoi was asked to leave Nintendo.^[22]

Its market share slipping to Sega and new rival Sony, Nintendo utilized a $185 million marketing campaign, centered around the "Play It Now" slogan, to revitalize its brand.^[23] The company's next home console, the Nintendo 64, was released in 1996 and features 3D graphics capabilities and built-in multiplayer for up to four players. The system's controller introduced the analog stick. Nintendo later introduced the Rumble Pak, an accessory for the Nintendo 64 controller that produced force feedback with compatible games. It was the first such device to come to market for home console gaming and eventually became an industry standard.^[24]

The Nintendo GameCube followed in 2001 and was the first Nintendo console to utilize optical disc storage instead of cartridges.^[25] The console was profitable, but sales paled in comparison with the rival PlayStation 2.

The Nintendo 3DS, Nintendo's latest handheld video game system which features autostereoscopic 3D.

A major update to its handheld line, Game Boy Advance, featuring improved technical specifications similar to those of the SNES. A first update improved lighting, while a later iteration brought a smaller form factor. Although originally advertised as an alternative to the Game Boy Advance, the Nintendo DS replaced the Game Boy line sometime after its initial release in 2004.^[26] It was distinctive for its dual screens and a microphone, as well as a touch-sensitive lower screen. The Nintendo DS Lite brought a smaller form factor.^[27] The Nintendo DSi featured larger screens and two cameras,^[28] and was followed by a larger version.^[29]

The successor to the Nintendo DS line, the Nintendo 3DS, uses the process of autostereoscopy to produce a stereoscopic three-dimensional effect without glasses.^[30] The console got off to a slow start, initially missing many key features that were promised before the system launched.^[31] Partially as a result of slow sales, Nintendo stock declined in value. Subsequent price cuts and game releases renewed investor confidence in the company.^[32]

Nintendo's most recent home console, the Wii, uses motion sensing controllers^[33] and has on-board online functionality used for services such as Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection and Internet Channel^[34] (in contrast to GameCube's limited functionality on select games with an additional modem accessory^[35]). Nintendo upcoming home console, the Wii U, will feature a touch screen controller.^[36]

Organization[link]

Marketing[link]

Nintendo of America has engaged in several high-profile marketing campaigns to define and position its brand. One of its earliest and most enduring slogans was "Now you're playing with power!", used first to promote its Nintendo Entertainment System. It modified the slogan to include "SUPER power" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and "PORTABLE power" for the Game Boy. Its 1994 "Play It Loud!" campaign played upon teenage rebellion and fostered an edgy reputation. During the GameCube era, the "Who Are You?" suggested a link between the games we play and the people we are. The company promoted its Nintendo DS handheld with the tagline "Touching is Good."

Key executives[link]

• Satoru Iwata, President and Representative Director
• Yoshihiro Mori, Senior Managing Director, General Manager of Corporate Analysis & Administration Division, and Representative Director
• Shinji Hatano, Senior Managing Director, General Manager of Licensing Division, and Representative Director
• Masaharu Matsumoto, Managing Director
• Shigeru Miyamoto, Senior Managing Director and Representative Director^[37]
• Reggie Fils-Aime, President and chief operating officer of Nintendo of America
• Satoru Shibata, President of Nintendo of Europe

Divisions[link]

Nintendo Co., Ltd. oversees the company's global operations and manages Japanese operations specifically. The company's two major subsidiaries, Nintendo of America and Nintendo of Europe, manage operations in North America and Europe respectively. Nintendo Co., Ltd. (NCL)^[38] was originally based in Kyoto.^f[›] It then moved to a new office in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto, which is now its research and development building.^e[›] Seen 2000, the company has been based in Minami-ku, Kyoto.^d[›][39]

Nintendo of America, Incorporated (NOA), its U.S. division, is based in Redmond, Washington. Originally the NOA headquarters handled sales, marketing, and advertising. However, the office in Redwood City, California now directs those functions. The company maintains distribution centers in Atlanta, Georgia (Nintendo Atlanta) and North Bend, Washington (Nintendo North Bend). The 380,000-square-foot (35,000 m²) Nintendo North Bend facility processes more than 20,000 orders a day to Nintendo customers, which include retail stores that sell Nintendo products and consumers who order their video games and associated components online.^[40] Nintendo of America's Canadian branch,^[41] Nintendo of Canada, Ltd. (NOCL), is based in Vancouver, BC, with its distribution center in Toronto, Ontario.

Nintendo of Europe (NOE) was established in June 1990.^[42] The company handles operations in Europe and South Africa.^[42] The subsidiary is based in Großostheim,^[43] close to Frankfurt, Germany. Nintendo of Europe's United Kingdom branch^[44] handles operations in that country and in Ireland from its headquarters in Windsor, Berkshire.

Nintendo Australia Pty Ltd (NAL) is based in Melbourne, Victoria. It handles the distribution, sales and marketing of Nintendo products in Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania (Cook Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu). It also manufactures some Wii games locally.

Nintendo of the Philippines, Incorporated (NOP), is the Philippine division, based in Cagayan de Oro City. It has distribution centers in Davao City, Davao del Sur (Nintendo Cagayan de Oro) and (Nintendo Davao) and Manila, Philippines (Nintendo ng Pilipinas) in 2012 (coming soon).^{[citation needed]}

iQue, Ltd., a Chinese joint venture between its founder, Doctor Wei Yen, and Nintendo, manufactures and distributes official Nintendo consoles and games for the mainland Chinese market, under the iQue brand. The product lineup for the Chinese market is considerably different from that for other markets. For example, Nintendo's only console in China is the iQue Player, a modified version of the Nintendo 64. The company has not released its more modern GameCube or Wii to the market.

Nintendo established Nintendo of Korea (NoK) on July 7, 2006.^[45]

• 

  The exterior of Nintendo's main headquarters in Kyoto, Japan

• 

  The Nintendo of America headquarters in Redmond, United States

• 

  Nintendo Europe headquarters in Großostheim, Germany

Software development studios[link]

First-party studios[link]

• Nintendo EAD Comprehensive Group – Super Mario 64 DS, Star Fox 64 3D
• Nintendo EAD Group 1 – Mario Kart series, Nintendogs series, Luigi's Mansion^[46]
• Nintendo EAD Group 2 – Animal Crossing series, Wii-branded games
• Nintendo EAD Group 3 – The Legend of Zelda series
• Nintendo EAD Group 4 – Pikmin series, New Super Mario Bros., Big Brain Academy
• Nintendo EAD Group 5 – Wii Fit, Steel Diver with Vitei
• Nintendo EAD Tokyo 1 – Donkey Kong Jungle Beat, Super Mario Galaxy
• Nintendo EAD Tokyo 2 – Flipnote Studio, Super Mario Galaxy 2, Super Mario 3D Land
• Nintendo SPD – WarioWare series, Tomodachi Collection, Rhythm Heaven series, Metroid: Other M with Team Ninja^[47]
• Nintendo NSD – Personal Trainer: Walking
• Nintendo SDD – Brain Age series
• Nintendo STC – Mario vs. Donkey Kong, Crosswords DS, Metroid Prime Hunters^[48]
• Monolith Soft – Disaster: Day of Crisis, Xenoblade Chronicles^[49]
• Retro Studios – Metroid Prime series, Donkey Kong Country Returns^[50]
• Brownie Brown – Mother 3, A Kappa's Trail
• Intelligent Systems – Paper Mario series with Nintendo, Fire Emblem series, Advance Wars series,^[51] WarioWare series
• Project Sora – Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Kid Icarus: Uprising
• Nd Cube – Wii Party, Mario Party 9
• HAL Laboratory – Kirby series, Earthbound series, Super Smash Bros. series

Second-party studios[link]

Since the 1980s, Nintendo has built up a large group of second-party partners, through publishing agreements or collaboration.

• AlphaDream – Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga, Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time, Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story
• Ambrella – Pokémon Dash, Pokémon Rumble, Pokémon Channel, My Pokémon Ranch,^[52]
• Arika – "Endless Ocean" series, 3D classics series
• Creatures Inc. – EarthBound (Mother) series
• Camelot Software Planning – Golden Sun series, Mario Power Tennis
• Eighting - Kuru Kuru Kururin series, Master of Illusion
• Ganbarion - Pandora's Tower
• Game Freak - Pokémon, Drill Dozer
• Genius Sonority – Pokémon Colosseum, Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness, Pokémon Battle Revolution
• Good-Feel – Wario Land: Shake It!, Kirby's Epic Yarn (with HAL Laboratory)
• Grezzo - The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time 3D
• iNiS - Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan! series, "Elite Beat Agents"
• Kuju Entertainment - Art Academy, "Battalion Wars" series
• Monster Games – Excitebike series,^[53] Pilotwings Resort
• n-Space - Geist
• Next Level Games – Super Mario Strikers, Punch-Out!! (Wii), Luigi's Mansion 2
• Noise – Custom Robo series ^[54]
• Paon – Donkey Kong Barrel Blast, DK Jungle Climber, DK King of Swing
• Sandlot - Chōsōjū Mecha MG, "Zangeki no Reginleiv"
• Suzak - Wario: Master of Disguise, F-Zero: Climax, F-Zero: GP Legend
• Tose - The Legendary Starfy series, Game & Watch Gallery series, Super Princess Peach
• Skip Ltd. – Chibi-Robo! series, Art Style series
• syn Sophia – Style Savvy
• Vanpool – Dillon's Rolling Western
• Vitei - Steel Diver (with EAD Group 5), "Rock N’ Roll Climber" (with EAD Group 3)

Former affiliates[link]

• Rare - Donkey Kong Country, GoldenEye 007, Star Fox Adventures, Diddy Kong Racing

  Sold to Microsoft Game Studios in 2002.^[55]

• Cing – Hotel Dusk: Room 215, Another Code: Two Memories

  Filed for bankruptcy in 2010.

• Silicon Knights – Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem

  Publishing contract with Nintendo ended in 2004.^[56]

• Factor 5

  Closed in 2009.

• Left Field Productions – Kobe Bryant in NBA Courtside series

  Bought out Nintendo's stake in the company in 2002.^[57]

• Marigul Management

  Closed in 2003.

• St.GIGA - Games for the Satellaview

  Stopped making games for Nintendo when the Satellaview was discontinued. Eventually, they went out of business.

• Radical Entertainment - Mario's Time Machine, Mario is Missing!

  Stopped making games for Nintendo after the Mario Discovery series ended. Now a fully owned subsidiary of Activision Blizzard.

Policy[link]

Emulation[link]

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. It needs additional citations for verification. Tagged since June 2010. It may contain original research. Tagged since June 2010. It may contain previously unpublished synthesis of published material that conveys ideas not attributable to the original sources. Tagged since June 2010.

Nintendo, particularly Nintendo of America, is known for a "no tolerance" stance for emulation of its video games and consoles, stating that it is the single largest threat to the intellectual rights of video game developers.^[58] Nintendo claims that copyright-like rights in mask works protect its games from the exceptions that United States copyright law otherwise provides for personal backup copies. Nintendo uses the claim that emulators running on personal computers have no use other than to play pirated video games, though a use that doesn't involve intellectual property in this way is seen in the development and testing of independently produced "homebrew" software on Nintendo's platforms. It is also claimed that Nintendo's claims contradict copyright laws, mainly that ROM image copiers are illegal (they are legal if used to dump unprotected ROM images on to a user's computer for personal use, per 17 U.S.C. § 117(a)(1) and foreign counterparts)^[59] and that emulators are illegal (if they do not use copyrighted BIOS, or use other methods to run the game, they are legal; see Console emulator for further information about the legality of emulators). However, Nintendo remains the only modern console manufacturer that has not sued an emulator manufacturer.^{[citation needed]} Emulators have been used by Nintendo and licensed third party companies as a means to re-release older games (e.g. Virtual Console).

Content guidelines[link]

For many years, Nintendo had a policy of strict content guidelines for video games published on its consoles. Although Nintendo of Japan allowed graphic violence in its video games, nudity and sexuality were strictly prohibited. Former Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi believed that if the company allowed the licensing of pornographic games, the company's image would be forever tarnished.^[60] Nintendo of America and Nintendo of Europe went further in that games released for Nintendo consoles could not feature nudity, sexuality, profanity (including racism, sexism or slurs), blood, graphic or domestic violence, drugs, political messages or religious symbols (with the exception of widely unpracticed religions, such as the Greek Pantheon).^[61] The Japanese parent company was concerned that it may be viewed as a "Japanese Invasion" by forcing Japanese community standards on North American and European children. Despite the strict guidelines, some exceptions have occurred: Bionic Commando (though swastikas were eliminated in the US version), Smash TV and Golgo 13: Top Secret Episode contained human violence, the latter also containing implied sexuality and tobacco use; River City Ransom and Taboo: The Sixth Sense contained nudity, and the latter also contained religious images, as did Castlevania II and III.

A known side effect of this policy was the Sega Genesis version of Mortal Kombat selling over double the number of the Super NES version, mainly because Nintendo had forced publisher Acclaim to recolor the red blood to look like white sweat and replace some of the more gory graphics in its release of the game, making it non-violent.^[62] By contrast, Sega allowed blood and gore to remain in the Genesis version (though a code was required to unlock the gore). Nintendo allowed the Super NES version of Mortal Kombat II to ship uncensored the following year with a content warning on the packaging.^[63]

In 1994 and 2003, when the ESRB and PEGI (respectively) video game ratings systems were introduced, Nintendo chose to abolish most of these policies in favor of consumers making their own choices about the content of the games they played. Today, changes to the content of games are done primarily by the game's developer or, occasionally, at the request of Nintendo. The only clear-set rule is that ESRB AO-rated games will not be licensed on Nintendo consoles in North America,^[64] a practice which is also enforced by Sony and Microsoft, its two greatest competitors in the present market. Nintendo has since allowed several mature-content games to be published on its consoles, including: Perfect Dark, Conker's Bad Fur Day, Doom and Doom 64, BMX XXX, the Resident Evil series, killer7, Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem, BloodRayne, Geist and Dementium: The Ward. Certain games have continued to be modified, however. For example, Konami was forced to remove all references to cigarettes in the 2000 Game Boy Color game Metal Gear Solid (although the previous NES version of Metal Gear and the subsequent GameCube game Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes both included such references, as did Wii title MadWorld), and maiming and blood were removed from the Nintendo 64 port of Cruis'n USA.^[65] Another example is in the Game Boy Advance game Mega Man Zero 3, in which one of the bosses, called Hellbat Schilt in the Japanese and European releases, was renamed Devilbat Schilt in the North American localization. In North America releases of the Mega Man Zero games, enemies and bosses killed with a saber attack would not gush blood as they did in the Japanese versions. However, the release of the Wii has been accompanied by a number of even more controversial mature titles, such as Manhunt 2, No More Heroes, The House of the Dead: Overkill and MadWorld, the latter three of which are published exclusively for the console. The Nintendo DS also has violent games, such as Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars, Dementium: The Ward, Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 and Resident Evil: Deadly Silence.

License guidelines[link]

Nintendo of America also had guidelines before 1993 that had to be followed by its licensees to make games for the Nintendo Entertainment System, in addition to the above content guidelines:.^[60] Guidelines were enforced through the 10NES lockout chip.

• Licensees were not permitted to release the same game for a competing console until two years had passed.
• Nintendo would decide how many cartridges would be supplied to the licensee.
• Nintendo would decide how much space would be dedicated for articles, advertising, etc. in the Nintendo Power magazine.
• There was a minimum number of cartridges that had to be ordered by the licensee from Nintendo.
• There was a yearly limit of five games that a licensee may produce for a Nintendo console.^[66] This rule was created to prevent market over-saturation, which had contributed to the North American video game crash of 1983.

The last rule was circumvented in a number of ways; for example, Konami, wanting to produce more games for Nintendo's consoles, formed Ultra Games and later Palcom to produce more games as a technically different publisher.^[60] This disadvantaged smaller or emerging companies, as they could not afford to start additional companies. In another side effect, Square Co. (now Square Enix) executives have suggested that the price of publishing games on the Nintendo 64 along with the degree of censorship and control that Nintendo enforced over its games, most notably Final Fantasy VI, were factors in switching its focus towards Sony's PlayStation console.^{[citation needed]}

Seal of Quality[link]

The gold starburst seal was first used by Nintendo of America, and later Nintendo of Europe. It is displayed on any game, system, or accessory licensed for use on one of its video game consoles, denoting the game has been properly licensed by Nintendo. The seal is also displayed on any Nintendo-licensed merchandise, such as trading cards and apparel.^[67]

NTSC regions[link]

In NTSC regions, this seal is an elliptical starburst titled "Official Nintendo Seal". Originally, for NTSC countries, the seal was a large, black and gold circular starburst. The seal read as follows: "This seal is your assurance that NINTENDO has approved and guaranteed the quality of this product." This seal was later altered in 1988: "approved and guaranteed" was changed to "evaluated and approved". In 1989, the seal became gold and white, as it currently appears, with a shortened phrase, "Official Nintendo Seal of Quality". It was changed in 2003 to read "Official Nintendo Seal".^[67]

PAL regions[link]

In PAL regions, the seal is a circular starburst titled, "Original Nintendo Seal of Quality". Text near the seal in the Australian Wii manual states:

This seal is your assurance that Nintendo has reviewed this product and that it has met our standards for excellence in workmanship, reliability and entertainment value. Always look for this seal when buying games and accessories to ensure complete compatibility with your Nintendo product.^[68]

Environmental record[link]

Greenpeace's October 2010 "Guide to Greener Electronics" report ranks Nintendo last on a list of electronics manufacturers, with the same score (1.8 out of 10) as in the previous version of the guide (May 2010). The report cites increasing carbon dioxide emissions (failed to be reduced per target) and a lack of waste management. Limited praise focuses on satisfactory energy efficiency of the DSi and 3DS AC adapter, the reduction of PVC usage in wiring (and new chemical regulations) and the disclosure of carbon dioxide emissions.^[69]

In the January 2010 version of the ranking, Nintendo scored 1.9 points, at which, three days later, Nintendo issued a response that addressed primary concerns, highlighting a policy to indicate the materials used in each product, which makes end-of-life recycling of products easier.^[70]

Gaming systems[link]

Nintendo has produced a number of gaming systems, many with different iterations.

Home consoles[link]

Portable consoles[link]

• Game & Watch
  • Game & Watch Silver (1980)
  • Game & Watch Gold (1981)
  • Game & Watch Wide Screen (1981)
  • Game & Watch New Wide Screen (1982)
  • Game & Watch Multi Screen (1982)
  • Game & Watch Tabletop (1983)
  • Game & Watch Panorama (1983)
  • Game & Watch SuperColor (1984)
  • Game & Watch Micro Vs. System (1984)
  • Game & Watch Crystal Screen (1986)
  • Game & Watch Disk Kun (1987)
  • Game & Watch Mini Classics (1998)
• Game Boy Line
  • Game Boy (1989)
  • Game Boy Pocket (1996)
  • Game Boy Light (1997)
  • Game Boy Color (1998)
  • Game Boy Advance (2001)
  • Game Boy Advance SP (2003)
  • Game Boy Micro (2005)
• Nintendo DS Line
  • Nintendo DS (2004)
  • Nintendo DS Lite (2006)
  • Nintendo DSi (2009)
  • Nintendo DSi XL (2010)
• Nintendo 3DS Line
  • Nintendo 3DS (2011)

^ a:  There were a total of five different consoles in the Color TV Game series which spanned from 1977 to 1980.
^ b:  For distribution purposes, Europe and Australia were divided into two regions by Nintendo. The first of these regions consisted of France, the Netherlands, West Germany, Norway, Denmark and Sweden and saw the NES released during 1986. The console was released in the second region, consisting of the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and Italy, as well as Australia and New Zealand, the following year.
^ c:  According to Stephen Kent's The Ultimate History of Video Games, the official launch date was September 9. Newspaper and magazine articles from late 1991 report that the first shipments were in stores in some regions on August 23, while it arrived in other regions at a later date. Many modern online sources (circa 2005 and later) report August 13.
^ d: 34°58′11.89″N 135°45′22.33″E / 34.9699694°N 135.7562028°E / 34.9699694; 135.7562028
^ e: 34°58′29.00″N 135°46′10.48″E / 34.97472°N 135.7695778°E / 34.97472; 135.7695778
^ f: 34°59′30.03″N 135°45′58.66″E / 34.991675°N 135.7662944°E / 34.991675; 135.7662944

See also[link]

	Nintendo portal
	Companies portal

• Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
• List of divisions of Nintendo
• List of products published by Nintendo
• Lists of Nintendo characters
• Lists of Nintendo games
• Nintendo development teams
• Nintendo Selects formerly Player's Choice
• Nintendo World Store
• Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.

Notes[link]

1. ^ "Nintendo News:Nintendo switched logos "two years" ago". ComputerAndVideoGames.com. http://www.computerandvideogames.com/202585/news/nintendo-switched-logos-two-years-ago/. Retrieved 2010-06-01. 
2. ^ ^{a b} "Company History" (in Japanese). Nintendo. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/corporate/outline/index.html. Retrieved 2006-07-29. 
3. ^ "International Distributors - Company List". Nintendo. http://www.nintendo.com/corp/distributors_international.jsp. Retrieved 2008-11-17. 
4. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Nintendo's Earnings Release: Fiscal Year ended March 31, 2011" (PDF). 2011-04-25. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/pdf/2011/110425e.pdf. 
5. ^ "Consolidated Financial Statements". Nintendo Co., Ltd.. May 6, 2010. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/pdf/2010/100506e.pdf. Retrieved 2011-05-25. 
6. ^ "Company History". Nintendo. http://www.nintendo.com/corp/history.jsp. Retrieved 2006-06-04. 
7. ^ "Nintendo History Lesson: The Lucky Birth". N-Sider. http://www.n-sider.com/articleview.php?articleid=45. Retrieved 2006-06-04. 
8. ^ Takenaka, Kiyoshi (2007-10-15). "Nintendo sets $85 bln high score, thanks to Wii, Nintendo DS". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/companyNewsAndPR/idUST30751820071015. Retrieved 2011-05-25. 
9. ^ "Nintendo - Company Profile". nintendolife. http://wii.nintendolife.com/companies/nintendo. Retrieved 2010-07-12. 
10. ^ "Nintendo Corporation, Limited" (doc). http://staff.science.uva.nl/~egoris/teaching/spring2005/week%201%20intro/Example%20Nintendo.doc. Retrieved 2011-02-22. 
11. ^ "Kirby's Epic Yarn For Wii Keeps Players In Stitches" (Press release). Nintendo. 2010-10-18. http://press.nintendo.com/articles.jsp?id=25911. Retrieved 2010-10-29. 
12. ^ "Nintendo's card game product". nintendo. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/n09/index.html. Retrieved 2009. 
13. ^ "list of japan contract bridge league tounaments" (in japanese). jcbl. http://www.jcbl.or.jp/english/tournament.html. Retrieved 2010. 
14. ^ "Nintendo History". Nintendo of Europe GmbH. Archived from the original on 1 January 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5vQB0bQ5E. Retrieved 1 January 2011. 
15. ^ ^{a b} "Famous Names in Gaming". CBS. http://www.cbsnews.com/2316-100_162-1673418-2.html. Retrieved 2010-06-13. 
16. ^ "Iwata Asks-Punch-Out!!". Nintendo. http://us.wii.com/iwata_asks/punchout/vol1_page1.jsp. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
17. ^ Nagata, Kazuaki, "Nintendo secret: It's all in the game", Japan Times, 10 March 2009, p. 3.
18. ^ Kent (2001), p. 431. "Sonic was an immediate hit, and many consumers who had been loyally waiting for Super NES to arrive now decided to purchase Genesis.... The fiercest competition in the history of video games was about to begin."
19. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Consolidated Sales Transition by Region" (PDF). Nintendo. 2012-04-25. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/library/historical_data/pdf/consolidated_sales_e1203.pdf. Retrieved 2012-04-26. 
20. ^ Frischling, Bill. "Sideline Play." The Washington Post (1974-Current file): 11. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Washington Post (1877-1995). Oct 25 1995. Web. 24 May 2012.
21. ^ Boyer, Steven. "A Virtual Failure: Evaluating the Success of Nintendos Virtual Boy." Velvet Light Trap.64 (2009): 23-33. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 24 May 2012.
22. ^ Snow, Blake (2007-05-04). "The 10 Worst-Selling Consoles of All Time". GamePro. Archived from the original on 2011-06-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20110607134204/http://www.gamepro.com/article/features/111823/the-10-worst-selling-consoles-of-all-time-page-2-of-2/. Retrieved 2010-06-12. 
23. ^ Miller, Cyndee. "Sega Vs. Nintendo: This Fights almost as Rough as their Video Games." Marketing News 28.18 (1994): 1-. ABI/INFORM Global; ProQuest Research Library. Web. 24 May 2012.
24. ^ Buchanan, Levi (2008-04-03). "IGN: Happy Birthday, Rumble Pak". IGN. http://retro.ign.com/articles/864/864231p1.html. Retrieved 2008-09-12. 
25. ^ "Nintendo - Corporate Information - Company History". Nintendo. http://www.nintendo.com/corp/history.jsp. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
26. ^ "Nintendo Going Back to the Basics. Full story about the company offering a new system in 2004.". IGN. 2003-11-13. http://ds.ign.com/articles/541/541729p1.html. Retrieved 2007-10-04. 
27. ^ Rojas, Peter (2006-02-20). "The Engadget Interview: Reggie Fils-Aime, Executive Vice President of Sales and Marketing for Nintendo". Engadget. http://www.engadget.com/2006/02/20/the-engadget-interview-reggie-fils-aime-executive-vice-preside/. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
28. ^ "Explore Nintendo DSi". http://www.nintendodsi.com/meet-dsi.jsp. Retrieved 2009-07-24. 
29. ^ Roberts, Dave (2010-01-14). "Nintendo DSi XL to launch on March 5th". MCV. Intent Media. http://www.mcvuk.com/news/37129/DSi-XL-gets-March-5th-launch. Retrieved 2010-01-30. 
30. ^ "Launch of New Portable Game Machine" (Press release). Minami-ku, Kyoto: Nintendo. 23 March 2010. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/pdf/2010/100323e.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-23. 
31. ^ "Nintendo 3DS passes 1 million units sold in Japan, finally" (Press release). TechSpot. 13 June 2011. http://www.techspot.com/news/44226-nintendo-3DS-passes-1-million-units-sold-in-japan-finally.html. Retrieved 2011-06-20. 
32. ^ "Nintendo shares leap on 3DS optimism" (Press release). Hurriyet Daily News. 23 August 2011. http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=nintendo-shares-leap-on-3ds-optimism-2011-08-23. Retrieved 2011-10-26. 
33. ^ "Controllers at Nintendo :: Wii :: What Is Wii?". http://www.nintendo.com/wii/what/controllers#remote. Retrieved 2009-08-04. 
34. ^ "Wii + Internet at Nintendo". http://www.nintendo.com/wii/internet. Retrieved 2010-06-13. 
35. ^ (PDF) Nintendo GameCube Modem Adapter Instruction Booklet. Nintendo of America, Inc.. http://www.nintendo.com/consumer/downloads/modem_english.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-13. 
36. ^ "Re: Wii’s successor system". Nintendo. 25 April 2011. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/pdf/2011/110425_4e.pdf. Retrieved 25 April 2011. 
37. ^ "Profile". Nintendo Co. Ltd. (NTDOY.PK). Yahoo! News Network. http://finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=NTDOY.PK. Retrieved 10 June 2011. 
38. ^ "製品技術編(2)". 社長が訊く 任天堂で働くということ. Nintendo Co., Ltd.. Archived from the original on 1 January 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5vQBDu3BO. Retrieved 1 January 2011. 
39. ^ "Fushimi Inari Taisha and Fox." Nintendo. Retrieved on January 1, 2011. "12. Former head office: Before Nintendo's head office moved to Minami Ward, Kyoto City (its current location) in 2000, it was in Higashiyama Ward, Kyoto City. The former head office's location is now occupied by Nintendo Kyoto Research Center."
40. ^ R.H. Brown Co. Inc. (2007). "Case Studies". Hytrol.com. http://www.hytrol.com/casestudy.cfm?id=35. Retrieved 2008-09-17. 
41. ^ http://www.nintendo.com/?country=CA&lang=en
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References[link]

• Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4. 

Further reading[link]

• Sloan, Daniel (2011). Playing to Wiin: Nintendo and the Video Game Industrys Greatest Comeback. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-82512-9. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nintendo

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Nintendo

• Official website (country selector)
• Nintendo Australia
• Nintendo Power
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• Nintendo in Depth Archive by The Daily Telegraph

Links to related articles v t e Nintendo developers First-party Brownie Brown • Creatures Inc. • EAD • Intelligent Systems • Monolith Soft • Nd Cube • NSD • Project Sora • Retro Studios • SDD • SPD • STC • Technology Development Second-party AlphaDream • Ambrella • Camelot Software Planning • Game Freak • Genius Sonority • Good-Feel • HAL Laboratory • Monster Games • Next Level Games • Noise • Paon • N-Space • skip Ltd. • Sora Ltd. Former second-party Cing • Factor 5 • Left Field Productions • Marigul Management (including Clever Trick, Param, and Saru Brunei) • Rare • Silicon Knights v t e Nintendo video game hardware Consoles Color TV Game NES Disk System Famicom Titler Twin Famicom NES-101 model Nintendo M82 C1 NES TV Super NES Super Game Boy Satellaview SNES-101 SF-1 SNES TV Nintendo 64 64DD iQue Player Nintendo GameCube Game Boy Player Panasonic Q Wii Wii U Handhelds Game & Watch (Mini Classics) Game Boy Pocket Light Game Boy Color Game Boy Advance SP Micro Visteon Dockable Entertainment Pokémon mini Nintendo DS Lite DSi DSi XL Nintendo 3DS Arcade Early arcade games Vs. System PlayChoice-10 Nintendo Super System Triforce Peripherals 3D System Data Recorder Family BASIC DK Bongos e-Reader 4-Players Adaptor Game Boy Camera Game Boy Printer GameCube–Game Boy Advance cable Game Link Cable NES Advantage NES Four Score NES Max NES Satellite NES Zapper Nintendo 64 controller (accessories) GameCube controller Nintendo Power Power Glove Power Pad R.O.B. Rumble Pak SNES Mouse SNES Multitap Super Advantage Super Scope WaveBird Wii Balance Board Classic Controller Wii Remote (Wii MotionPlus Third-party accessories) Wii Speak Wii U controller Wii Zapper Technology Game Pak Nintendo optical disc Nintendo Game Card Super FX Other Pokémon Pikachu Pokéwalker Virtual Boy v t e Nintendo franchises 1080° Advance Wars/Wars series Animal Crossing Art Style Brain Age Custom Robo Donkey Kong Excitebike EarthBound Fire Emblem F-Zero Game & Watch Golden Sun Ice Climber Kirby Kid Icarus The Legendary Starfy The Legend of Zelda Mario Metroid Nintendogs (+ Cats) Osu! Tatakae! 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Japan Yamada Denki v t e Seattle Mariners Based in Seattle, Washington The franchise History • Expansion draft • Seasons • Records • No-hitters • Players • Managers • General managers and owners • Award winners and league leaders • First-round draft picks • Broadcasters • Opening Day starting pitchers • Opening Day starting lineups • Minor league affiliates • Uniform promotion games • Seattle Mariners Hall of Fame Ballparks Kingdome • Safeco Field Spring training: Tempe Diablo Stadium • Peoria Sports Complex Culture Mariner Moose • The Double • "Refuse to Lose" • Tuba Man • Dave Niehaus • Rally fries • 1995 AL West tie-breaker • Turn Ahead the Clock • 116 Wins • 1995 ALDS • 2000 ALDS • 2001 ALDS Key personnel Owner: Nintendo of America, represented by Howard Lincoln • General Manager: Jack Zduriencik • Manager: Eric Wedge Retired numbers 42 All-Star Games hosted (2) 1979 • 2001 American League Western Division titles (3) 1995 • 1997 • 2001 Wild card berths (1) 2000 Minor league affiliates Tacoma Rainiers (AAA) • Jackson Generals (AA) • High Desert Mavericks (A) • Everett AquaSox (A) • Clinton LumberKings (A) • Pulaski Mariners (Rookie) • AZL Mariners (Rookie) • DSL Mariners (Rookie) • VSL Mariners (Rookie) Broadcasting Television Root Sports Northwest Radio ESPN-710 • Seattle Mariners radio network affiliates Broadcasters Rick Rizzs • Dave Sims • Mike Blowers • Julio Cruz (Spanish) • Alex Rivera (Spanish)   Seasons (35) 1970s 1970 • 1971 • 1972 • 1973 • 1974 • 1975 • 1976 • 1977 • 1978 • 1979 1980s 1980 • 1981 • 1982 • 1983 • 1984 • 1985 • 1986 • 1987 • 1988 • 1989 1990s 1990 • 1991 • 1992 • 1993 • 1994 • 1995 • 1996 • 1997 • 1998 • 1999 2000s 2000 • 2001 • 2002 • 2003 • 2004 • 2005 • 2006 • 2007 • 2008 • 2009 2010s 2010 • 2011 • 2012 v t e Principal owners of the Seattle Mariners franchise Danny Kaye George Argyros Jeff Smulyan Hiroshi Yamauchi Nintendo of America v t e Major League Baseball owners by team American League East Division Peter Angelos (Baltimore Orioles) John W. Henry (Boston Red Sox) Hal Steinbrenner (New York Yankees) Stuart Sternberg (Tampa Bay Rays) Rogers Communications (Toronto Blue Jays) Central Division Jerry Reinsdorf (Chicago White Sox) Larry Dolan (Cleveland Indians) Mike Ilitch (Detroit Tigers) David Glass (Kansas City Royals) Jim Pohlad (Minnesota Twins) West Division Arte Moreno (Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim) Lewis Wolff (Oakland Athletics) Nintendo of America (Seattle Mariners) Nolan Ryan (Texas Rangers) National League East Division Liberty Media (Atlanta Braves) Jeffrey Loria (Miami Marlins) Fred Wilpon (New York Mets) David Montgomery (Philadelphia Phillies) Ted Lerner (Washington Nationals) Central Division Thomas S. Ricketts (Chicago Cubs) Robert Castellini (Cincinnati Reds) Jim Crane (Houston Astros) Mark Attanasio (Milwaukee Brewers) Robert Nutting (Pittsburgh Pirates) William DeWitt, Jr. (St. Louis Cardinals) West Division Ken Kendrick (Arizona Diamondbacks) Monfort brothers (Colorado Rockies) Guggenheim Baseball Management (Los Angeles Dodgers) John Moores (San Diego Padres) Larry Baer (San Francisco Giants)